Theoretical Frameworks or Perspectives in Psychology Essay Example for Free

Theoretical Frameworks or Perspectives in Psychology Essay Initially psychology was developed using the mental thinking expressed by persons interested in developing the subject of psychology. But John B. Watson differed from that approach and he pioneered the approach in which visible behavior and visible environmental stimulus became the subject of study. B. F. Skinner developed this behavioristic framework further by bringing in the contingent environmental consequences. Behavior is not the outcome of stimulus alone, but it is an outcome determined by the stimulus as well as the contingent environmental consequences of a behavior. This means, there are alternative behaviors for the same stimulus and which behavior is exhibited by a person depends on expected environmental consequences. Cognitive perspective on psychology have developed by arguing that human beings are capable of thinking and concepts related to thinking must be brought into the subject of psychology whose objective is to explain behavior. Even though, one cannot see or observe thinking, still developing concepts related to thinking and using the concepts to explain behavior is required in psychology. Even though one cannot see or observe gravitation, the concept of gravitation is a useful concept in physics. Similarly, concepts related to thinking or cognition are to be developed and used in psychology was the argument of propopents of congitive approach to psychology. The perspectives in psychology have influenced the development of organizational behavior. Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals. In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting. Behavioristic Framework Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B. F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences. Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable). Social Cognitive Framework Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior. It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior. Bandura developed social learning theory into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Stajkovic and Luthans have translated this SCT into the theoretical framework for organizational behavior. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorism’s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action. In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors. The participants as a group of produce the environment, every individual is a product of the enironment and through his behavior changes the environment for others as well as for himself, every individual is a product of his personality, but also influences his personality as consequence of results of his behavior.

Reserve Officers Training Corps Essay Example for Free

Reserve Officers Training Corps Essay a. Discuss how the mission and vision of the Mapua C.W.T.S. and R.O.T. C. objectives are respectively reflected in the C.W.T.S. and R.O.T.C. activities. The C.W.T.S. activities promote social awareness and civic consciousness by going to different communities and being aware of the situation of every family that is living there. It also promotes civic responsibility, since in those communities; the students will be on a hands-on application that involves project preparation, planning and implementation at the assigned adopted communities. The students were developed to be a productive member of the community and the students are trained to face responsibly their duties and obligations. They are also able to help the less fortunate and underprivileged people in the society through working with the community. While in the activities of R.O.T.C., the students are being trained, motivated, and organized for national defense preparedness. It will be discussed to the ROTC cadets the military concepts and field drills will be conducted as the practical application. They will be engaged in activities such as map reading and land navigation, basic signal communication, unit formations, basic weapons training and pre-marksmanship training that will develop their skills and capabilities to lead, move, survive and communicate. The cadets will also participate in activities such as the Foundation Day of the Institute, Intramuros Day, Blood Letting Activity, Tree Planting Program, Alay-Lakad and the conduct of routine flag raising and retreat activities that could inculcate in the youth the spirit of patriotism and nationalism, also in developing their vital role in nation-building. And, they will be engaged in activities related to livelihood and economic development that would develop their civic consciousness and good citizenship. b. Compare and contrast the activities of C.W.T.S. and R.O.T.C. The activities of C.W.T.S. and R.O.T.C. both promotes civic consciousness, civic responsibility and good citizenship for their activities involves going to different communities to help the unprivileged and economically poor people and activities related to livelihood and economic development. In the activities of C.W.T.S., the students are trained to be the leading experts in their chosen career while acknowledging their social obligation. The students are brought up to strive for the best in their field in the aim  that their skills and talents would contribute to the upliftment of the society‘s condition. The students’ empowerment will serve as a tool in the progress of their lives as well as those of others. While in R.O.T.C., some activities like the CTIS involves training in basic intelligence, map reading and land navigation, basic signal communication, unit formations, basic weapons training and pre-marksmanship training; in their Individual/Unit Training, it trains the cadets in visual tracking, military mountaineering and jungle base operations; in their Military Values Education the conduct of routine flag raising and retreat activities, weekly conferences, critique or after action review, orientation among the parents about the program; in their Military Livelihood Enhancement are activities related to livelihood. Generally, ROTC is designed to provide military training for preparation in national defense and CWTS is like a training ground for students in becoming a productive member of the society.

Toxic Metals in Traditional Chinese Medicine Determination

Toxic Metals in Traditional Chinese Medicine Determination Determination of toxic metals in Traditional Chinese Medicine samples by atomic emission spectrometry Traditional Chinese Medicines(TCM) have gained increasing attention worldwide because of their effectiveness and small side effects[1]. The excess of toxic metals in these medicines have become one of the biggest problems that affected their export and hindered their introduction to the world[2]. In recent years, many domestic and abroad testing organizations paid great attention to the toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines. Generally, toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines including Lead, Cadmium, Chromium, Mercury, Copper and so on[3], sometimes people also prefer including Arsenic as toxic heavy metal. Different types of heavy metals in human effect different parts or systems, and the symptoms of poisoning can be on the nervous, digestive, hematopoietic systems or people’s metabolism and other body damage. So to accurate detect and limit the content of toxic metals is the key to protect the people of medication safety, to promote the internationalization of t raditional Chinese medicines. Recently, themost commonly used detection methods of detection of toxic metals include colorimetric assay and instrumental analysis[4]. With the increasing requirements for toxic metal limits, instrumental analysis method has become the primary means of detection of heavy metals. In this paper, the determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine samples by atomic emission spectrometry technology are reviewed. 1. The national limits for toxic metals in herbal medicines and product In general, quantitative tests and limit tests accurately determinate the concentrations of toxic metals in the form of impurities and contaminants. The latter are unavoidably present in the samples being tested. Member states can elect to use either quantitative tests or limit tests and their choices will be influenced by the nature of the sample and the contaminants or residues, assessed on a case-by-case basis. Another factor would be that the methods identified, and chosen to be applied to control toxic metals, should be relevant and should meet the requirements at a regional and national level. Some examples of proposed national limits for arsenic and toxic metals in various types of herbal products are shown in Table 1[5]. Table 1. Example of national limits for arsenic and toxic metals in herbal medicines and products 2. The sources of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine samples The toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines can be from the soil where is contaminated, in the processes of collection and production. 3. Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a method of chemical analysis, when the analyte atoms in solution are aspirated into the excitation region(flame, plasma, arc, or spark at a particular wavelength) and underwent desolvated, vaporized, atomized, these high-temperature sources provide sufficient energy to promote the atoms into high energy levels, after decaying back to lower energy levels by emitting light, the wavelength of the atomic spectral lines gives the identity of the element and the intensity of light proportional to the concentration of atoms, this can be used to determinate the quantity of elements in a sample. Since all atoms are excited simultaneously, they can be detected simultaneously. 3.1 The classification of AES Flame atomic emission spectroscopy(FAES) The energy source is flame, a sample is brought into the flame by a nebulizer in the form of gas, sprayed solution. A flame provides a high-temperature source for desolvating and vaporizing a sample to obtain free atoms for spectroscopic analysis. For atomic emission spectroscopy the flame must also excites the atom to higher excited states. Then subsequently emit light when they returning to the ground electronic state. Each element emits light at a characteristic wavelength, which is dispersed by a grating or prism(monochromator) and detected by photo detector. Due to its low temperature(1700~3200 °C), nitrous oxide-acetylene is the best flame as this gives the highest temperature. FAES used mostly for determination of alkali metals and occasionally calcium, and need internal standard to correct for variations flame[6]. So FAES is always used with FAAS together to determinate the content of metals in a sample. Slavica RaÃ…Â ¾iÄâ₠¬ ¡ used FAAS/FAES to determinate the elements of Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, K, Ca, Mg in some of herbal drugs[7]. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy(ICP-AES) Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy(ICP-AES) uses an inductively coupled plasma as thermal source to excite atoms and ions to their excited energy levels and emit electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths characteristic of a particular element[8]. ICP-AES has a lot of advantages such as low inter-element interference, multi-element capability, high sensitivity, high concentration range, low chemical interference, with stable and reproducible signal and high degree of selectivity, precision and accuracy(0.3~3%), can use with gas, liquid or solids samples. Disadvantages are serious spectral interferences(too many emission lines), procedures complicated, consume large Ar gas and operating expense, not possible to determinate the elements of H, N, O, C or Ar in trace levels as they are used in solvents and plasma, and also not possible to determinate F, Cl and noble gases at trace levels as they require high excitation energy. Spark and arc atomic emission spectroscopy For solid samples, spark or arc atomic emission spectroscopy is used for the analysis of metallic elements. 4. Determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine by ICP-AES Because of its high sensitivity, low detection limit, high precision, wide linear range, multi-element analysis, small matrix effects and many other advantages for the detection of most of the metallic elements. ICP-AES has become the most effective method that was widely used in all kinds of traditional Chinese medicines in the determination of toxic metals[9]. Yan Qing-hua used ICP-AES to determinate 14 kinds of elements Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cr, Ni, Pb, Se, As, Cd in traditional Chinese medicines for clearing heat and detoxification. Showed the determining elements in traditional Chinese medicine by IPC-AES saving time and effort, reducing environmental pollution, good stability, high sensitivity and multi-element simultaneous analysis[10]. Liu Er-dong used ICP-AES to determinate metallic elements for quality control of Chinese herbal medicines showed this method is accurate and rapid[11]. 4.1 Sampling process With the development of separation science, sample preparation methods have also been substantially developed, especially the sample preparation method for complex material systems, which has gained more attention in recent years. The specific method requires special preparation methods or combination methods according to the specific nature and status of the sample preparation. The traditional Chinese medicines samples are very complicated[12], the preparation method usually includes conventional extraction methods such as steam distillation, water extraction, and alcohol precipitation, alcohol precipitation of water, organic solvent extraction, fractionation, absorption. For the determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine samples, people have made a lot of work in improving the equipment, good analysis methods to improve the experimental measurements. But always overlook one more important factor, sampling. So how to improve the accuracy of sampling is also one of the most important topics to be studied. 4.2Digestion condition Digestion is an important process in the determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines. The general methods of digestion including ashing, wet digestion, microwave digestion, combustion method and high pressure dissolving. But all of these methods have their limitations: (1) can’t be guaranteed fully adapted to all organic samples; (2) the waste of analyte; (3) perchloric acid is flammable and explosible. Li Yang compared the digestion methods of dry ashing, wet digestion and microwave digestion in the process of determination of elements in periostracum serpentis and periostracum cicadae[13]. The results showed the microwave digestion with the highest efficiency. The samples of traditional Chinese medicine are always cleaned the sediment and washed with tap water, rewashed with de-ionized water, dried under 80à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ smashed and filtered through 40 mesh sieve, dried under 80à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ again for 1h, put into drier for using. 4.2.1 Ashing digestion Ashing digestion is digest samples at high temperature, this is used to find the total mineral content of a sample. Kuziemska Beata used ashing digestion method to determinate the contents of toxic metallic elements in red clover biomass[14]. Normal procedure as follows: Weighed dry sample 1g (wet 2~4 g), put it in porcelain crucible, charring with low heat , then ashing in furnaces at 450à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ for 3 hours, cooled and added a little distilled water, heated slightly to dry, then placed in a high temperature furnace ashing completely, cooled, add 1: 1 HNO3 1.0 ml, dissolved with heating, set the volume to 25ml. 4.2.2 Wet digestion In the process of wet digestion, normally use the solvent of acid or oxidant to digest the samples. The commonly used acid and oxidant are as follows: Nitric acid: The most commonly used acid in the process of digestion, it is also a strong oxidant which is widely used to dissolve trace elements in plant samples, get their soluble nitrate. Xue Yan used nitric acid as digestion reagent to detect chromium in medical materials showed the detection limit was 1.42 ng/mL, and the deviations were 1.43%~1.79%[15]. Perchloric acid: Can decompose organic component completely, which is used when the other reagents can not digest. However, the heat concentrated perchloric acid is explosible when contact with organic components, so the operator must be very careful. Aqua regia: It is a strong oxidant, can applied to digest inorganic components, such as gold and platinum. Tahar Kebir used aqua regia to digest food plants near a polluted site for the measurement of toxic metals(Fe, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cd, Mn, Cr and As) and got excellent results[16]. Hydrofluoric acid: It is an efficient reagent to dissolve silicon-containing material. It can change silicate into SiF4, which is used to digest silicon samples completely. When mixed with nitric acid, could digest TiO2, W, Zr et al. Hydrogen peroxide: It is one of the most commonly used oxidants, if combined with HNO3, HCIO4, HCI or mixed acid, the efficiency could be better. Sulfuric acid: Strong acid and oxidant. The capacity of these acid and oxidant are different. In the practical applications, normally use the mixture of two or more inorganic acids with different proportion(HNO3-H2SO4, HNO3-HCIO4, H2SO4-HNO3-HCIO4). It has proven that the optimal digestion reagents are the mixture of HNO3-HCIO4, could digest multiple components simultaneously. Tong Wen-jie used HNO3-HCIO4 to digest sunflower(Helianthus annuus L) and analyzed the mineral elements content[17]. Cai Yanrong also used HNO3-HCIO4 as digestion reagents in the study of trace elements(Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, K, Na, Ba, Sb, Pb, As) in hair samples[18]. 4.2.3 Microwave digestion Microwave digestion requires only a small amount of sample and can digest in short time. It is a widely used digestion method in the determination of elements in herbal drugs. Li Feng-xia used microwave digestion method to test and analyze of inorganic elements in 466 traditional Chinese medicines[19] showed that the measurements of each element are within the reference range, and RSD of determination is less than 10% for most of detected elements. In Yan Qing-hua’s study, his experiments also used microwave digestion technology, the recovery of the element reach 96.79%~103.47% and RSD less than 5.0%[10]. Zhang Sheng-bang used HNO3-H2O2 as solvents, microwave digestion to study multi-elements in traditional Chinese medicine Ophiopogon japonicus and Lotus seeds by ICP-AES[20]. Conclusion and outlook In recent years, the toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines are concerned increasing all over the world. The methods of determination of toxic metals are not yet fully unified and also lack of regulation, scientific and systemic research. In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia(2010 version), in addition to the classical colorimetric method, more and more inclined to the using of high sensitivity and precision instruments measurements. ICP-AES has proven to be a quick, high sensitive and multi-elements analysis method. But there are still a lot of problems to be solved, new methods of determination of toxic metals are required, we hope there is a even faster and cheaper method to satisfy the measurements of toxic metals for TCM’s quick check in the process of import and export. Of course, the determination of toxic metals in Chinese medicine samples is a long-term work, with the development of detection technology, the detectable levels of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medic ines will be increased, thereby enhancing their safety. References: [1] T. J. Zhang. Chinese Traditional and Herbal Drugs, 2011, 42, 1–9 [2] P. C. A. Kam; S. Liew. Anaesthesia, 2002, 57, 1083–1089 [3] Catherine Buettner; Kenneth J.; Mukamal; Paula Gardiner; Roger B. Davis ScD; Murray A. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 2009,24(11),1175-1182 [4] Anna Filipiak-Szok; Marzanna Kurzawa; Edward SzÅ‚yk. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 2014, ASAP [5] Patel Parthik. IJRAP, 2011, 2(4), 1148-1154 [6] Anderson S. Ribeiro. J. Braz. Chem. Soc., 2012, 23(9), 1623-1629 [7] Slavica Raziˆ¡c ´; Antonije Onjiab; Svetlana à ogo; Latinka Slavkovic ´; Aleksandar Popovic. Talanta, 2005, 67, 233–239 [8] A. Stef†²ansson. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2007, 582, 69–74 [9] Mao L; Tan MX; Chen ZF; Liang H. Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi, 2009, 29(9), 2568-70. [10] Yan Qing-hua; Yang li; Wang Qing; Ma Xiao-Qin. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 2012, 16, 287–290 [11] Liu Erdong; Zheng Yong-jun. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 2011, 23(3), 1091-1094 [12] Fang, Luo; Yang, Guonong; Song, Yu; Li, Fanzhu; Lin, Nengming. Journal of Separation Science, 2014,37(22),3245-3252 [13] Yang, Li; Li, Yanlan; Xj, Guoxj; Ma, Xiaoqin; Yan, Qinghua. Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society, 2013, 58(3), 1876-1879 [14] Kuziemska, Beata; Kalembasa, Stanislaw. Archives of Environmental Protection, 2009,35(1),95-105 [15] Xue Yan. Huaxue Fenxi Jiliang, 2012, 21(5), 52-53 [16] Tahar, Kebir; Keltoum, Bouhadjera; Abderrazzak, Baba Ahmed. International Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, 2014, 18(1), 51-58 [17] Tong, Wen-jie; Chen, Fu; Wen, Xin-ya. Guangpuxue Yu Guangpu Fenxi, 2014, 34(1),231-234. [18] Cai Yanrong. Biological trace element research, 2011, 144(1-3), 469-474 [19] Li Feng-xia; Ouyang Li; Liu Ya-qiong; Zeng Jing; Yan Lai-lai; Wang Jing-yu. China journal of Chinese materia medica. 2011,36(21),2994-3000 [20] Zhang Sheng-bang; Ji Xiao-wu; Liu Cui-ping. Advanced Materials Research (Durnten-Zurich, Switzerland), 2012, 535-537

Chinese Culture :: Cultural Identity Essays

The communist government thought that the liberation of women, who make half the population of China, was necessary for China to have complete freedom (Heng). Child weddings were banned, concubines were outlawed and brothels were closed. Women were allowed to hold real jobs. Some went to night school, or worked at the factory (Wudden). Laws were passed that equalized women under the law. The major ones were, The Chinese constitution of the early which 1950s. Which stated that Chinese women enjoyed equal rights with men in political, economic, social, cultural, and family life. The state protected women's rights and interests, practiced equal pay for equal work, and provided equal opportunity for women's training and promotion (Heng). The Marriage Law, which eliminated arranged marriages, saying that both women and men were free to choose their marriage partners, and widows were allowed to remarry (Heng). The Inheritance Law, which recognized the equal right of women to inherit family property (Heng). The Labor Insurance Regulations Law of 1951 guaranteed women 56 days of maternity leave with full pay (Heng). The Land Reform Law of the early 1950s provided rural women with an equal share of land under their own name, protecting their economic independence (Heng). After women got married conditions remained much the same, only instead of being subject to a father they were subject to their husbands. Like they had to with their brothers and fathers they had to obey their husbands absolutely and without question. Their husbands often had two or three wives. A major change though when a woman got married was that she was also subject to her mother in law, a relationship that was often very nasty (Zhou). When a woman’s husband died she couldn’t remarry, that would be disloyal to her husband. Even if she had no food it was better for a woman to die of hunger than remarry.

The Reality of Discrimination Essay -- Literary Analysis, To Kill a Mo

The famous novel, To Kill Mockingbird, portrayed such literary excellence, that it will always be a large mark on the history of American literature. In To Kill a Mockingbird, a novel set in the 1930s about a child heroine, discrimination and prejudices both play key roles throughout. Today, one could not imagine what life would have been like had they lived during these times. Scout Finch, a girl who, in this novel, begins to understand the reality of the problems in her small southern town, was faced with discrimination in many instances. Three forms of discrimination throughout To Kill a Mockingbird were discrimination against gender, race, and the unknown. The first example of discrimination in To Kill a Mockingbird is by gender, or sexism. There were only two children in the family of Atticus Finch: Jeremy â€Å"Jem† Atticus Finch and Jean Louise â€Å"Scout† Finch. Being that there were no other children in their neighborhood, the two children always played together. When the duo met Charles â€Å"Dill† Baker Harris one summer, they were instantly friends. To Scout, being â€Å"one of the boys† was never a problem. However, Jem and Dill began to think otherwise. When Jem became angry with Scout because of an argument over â€Å"Hot Steams†, he decides to push her, while inside the tire, down the walk and into the Radley front gate. Worried, Jem screams for her to hurry back to them; in her daze she forgot the tire. Jem ran to get it; when he came back he was scowling, â€Å"Nothin’ to it. I swear, Scout, sometimes you act so much like a girl it’s mortifyin’† (Lee 50). He used her being a girl as an insult, despite the fact that he too was scared. However, the conflict really began when Dill and Jem decided to try to make the infamous Boo ... ...ion and insult, which they would never have expected. (Felty 300) This shows the extent of seriousness with the racial discrimination dispersed throughout the South during these times. In conclusion, discrimination of gender, the unknown, and race were all present in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird. The reasons for the prejudices and discrimination were all the same. These were the â€Å"ways† in the Southern communities, and the people of Maycomb knew no other way to live. They acted out of habit because this habit was the way they were raised by their parents and their parents by their grandparents, and so on. However, starting with the trial, things would slowly begin to change. Scout would be a part of this change as she grew and her innocence was put behind her. This novel will always represent Southern American History and the ways our society changed.

Galileos Work :: essays research papers

Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. In 1570 his family relocated to Florence. Galileo pioneered "experimental scientific method" and was the first to use a refracting telescope to make important astronomical discoveries. In 1581, Galileo studied at the University of Pisa. There he became interested in the workings of science and concluded that the period (the time in which a pendulum swings back and forth) does not depend on the arc of the swing (the isochronisms). In 1609 Galileo learned of the invention of the telescope in Holland. From the barest description he constructed a vastly superior model. Galileo made a series of profound discoveries using his new telescope, including that the moon has craters, valleys, and mountains much like the Earth’s terrain. He also was able to see four small lights orbiting around the planet Jupiter. He was then able to conclude that it too was moons. Galileo was also able to discover that the planet Venus had phases much like our Moon. As a professor of astronomy at University of Pisa, Galileo was required to teach the accepted theory of his time that the sun and all the planets revolved around the Earth. Later at University of Padua he was exposed to a new theory, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, that the Earth and all the other planets revolved around the sun. Galileo's observations with his new telescope convinced him of the truth of Copernicus's sun-centered or heliocentric theory. In 1610, Galileo published a book, The Starry Messenger, describing his findings that supported the Copernican theory. Galileo's support for the heliocentric theory got him into trouble with the Roman Catholic Church. He was forced to abandon his astronomical pursuits. But, Galileo retaliated by publishing a book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. This book cause more arguments with the church due to it were in Italian which was a direct conflict with the church. In 1633 the Inquisition convicted him of heresy and forced him to recant (publicly withdraw) his support of Copernicus. They sentenced him to life imprisonment, but because of his advanced age allowed him serve his term under house arrest at his villa outside of Florence, Italy. It was not until 1992 that the church publicly forgave Galileo. But due to the timeframe, the damage had already been done.

Defining Abnormality Essay

Psychologist, for years have given their theory on normal and abnormal behavior, but all the studies they have done seems to give more evidence to prove what make each individual do what they do and why. In the normal and abnormal behavior we use all research and take all of its studies into consideration and apply it to why such behaviors have occurred. Reading this paper you can see that there are many experiments that challenge the theory of behavior no matter if it’s normal or abnormal. We will clarify some of the challeges as we define and classify both normal and abnormal behavior when we look at the challenges in Culture, gender and sexual preferences/practices and religion. Cultural normal and abnormal behaviors Culture is a challenge to abnormal behavior because these behaviors establish through socio-cultural traditions. The sociocultural perspective explains that abnormal behaviors are a result of family influences and social forces. Similar to the behavioral perspective, socio-cultural theorists believe mental disorders are learned behaviors. They tend to focus on social class, gender, and ethnicity in the explanation of mental disorders. An understanding of one’s sociocultural forces is also taken into consideration concerning abnormal behavior and its cultural challenge. Social forces, such as the media, social change, pressures, poverty, and social institutions are examples of how mental disorders are distinct or classified in culture. Family perspectives challenge abnormalities because they are complex systems. Because families are a representation of stability, any type of disruption could result in an emotional disorder. Culture puts a limit on abnormality because social norms tend to change over time. Cultural relativism holds the idea that normal or acceptable behavior are determined by society. Every society has its own views about what is normal and what is abnormal. For in instance, in the past Greeks thoughts people who heard voices was evidence of divine prophecy, yet today this is a sign of schizophrenia (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Culture bound disorders or abnormal behaviors practiced by a specific culture do not fit into the usual categories of the DSM-IV categories because the practices pertain to a particular group of people (Simons, 1996-2012). Given that the sociocultural perspective explains abnormal behavior is learned; treatment consists of switching the rewards and punishers in the environment and changing the bad habits that causes these behaviors (Learn Maximum, 2011). Mind/body normal and abnormal behavior Abnormal thoughts can have an important impact on the body. The mind/body connection is very strong. Constantly thinking negative thoughts can either perpetuate an already existing illness or bring illness on. Worrying all of the time can bring on anxiety that can cause other problems, such as high blood pressure and heart problems if not treated. Hypochondria are a condition brought about from abnormal thinking. Hypochondria are a disorder where a person thinks he or she has a life-threatening illness, but in actuality, are completely healthy physically. Other symptoms are, worrying about minor problems and linking them to life-threatening illnesses, seeing doctors numerous times to have tests, such as MRI’s and echocardiograms, switching doctors because the current doctor will not diagnose the patient with an illness, constantly talking to family and friends and suspected illnesses, continually checking their bodies for sores and lumps, checking vital signs, such as pulse and blood pressure on a frequent basis, and believing that they have disease after hearing or reading about it. There are several ways to recognize if thought are abnormal and could be hypochondria or if they are normal reactions and are in need of a doctor’s attention. Sometimes symptoms exist in actuality and a doctor cannot identify those symptoms. This can cause anxiety as well that can lead to other health problems. If a person can locate the illness that goes along with his or her symptoms, this usually means that he or she are normal and not hypochondriac. It is important to take an active role in recognizing mental and physical health to get the help needed. Recognizing when it is time to go to a medical doctor or psychiatrist is important to mental and physical health (Mayo Clinic, 2010). Religious normal and abnormal behavior The article of studying the specificity of spirituality: lessons from the psychology of religion discuss how the psychology of religion studies the specificity of spirituality. One major issues is how psychology contributes to the assessment, exploration, and explanation acts and activities of the specificity of religious and spiritual. There have been discussions for a long time about substantive vs. unctional definitions of the scientific study of religion (Platvoet & Molendijk, 1999). A substantive definition of religion is looking at religion as a type of philosophy or a basic understanding of nature and reality, which has nothing to do with our social or psychological lives. Functionalist definitions of religion are people belief either in social life, in society. Spirituality is cultural experiences that consists of different acts and activities in a certain spiritual tradition, which can be normal for some people or abnormal. Psychology of religion is a Western enterprise, in the East elaborate but different psychologist exists (cf. , e. g. , Paranjpe, 1998). Spirituality has different specificity, spiritual acts, and activities which associated to what people consider the act of transcending. One of the tasks psychology has is to comprehend the accuracy of human lives as well as in religion and spirituality, all spiritual acts, and activities are not alike. Psychologists involved in the study of the specificity of spirituality should go beyond with his or her research and understand the peculiarities, such as what they bestow. The clarification they offer for the behaviors and activities are so that people can understand the involvement and the type of meaning they bestow. Conclusion As we have demonstrated the challenges in classifying and defining normal and abnormal behavior because it is always changing and giving new research they have conducted in their study to indicate what is normal/ abnormal and how to identify from each of the behaviors.